MIGRAIN: Narrative

Narrative is a vital concept for A Level Media Studies and underpins the success or failure of most media texts.

We look for narratives - stories - to make sense of media products. Everything from film and television to news and adverts rely on narrative to help audiences understand the message. 

There are narrative patterns and four key narrative theories we need to learn as part of our introduction to A Level Media. The notes as a reminder:

Narrative patterns

Linear Pattern: progresses forward towards a resolution - Beginning, Middle and End.

Multi-strand Narrative: popular in broadcast TV (e.g. soaps) and film. Involves more than one narrative running parallel involving different characters and locations.

Documentary narrative: this may revolve round a central theme (e.g. troublesome neighbours) or group of people.

Long-running TV series such as classics Game of Thrones or Breaking Bad have one major narrative arc and lots of mini-narratives. The overarching narrative runs over the series (or even multiple series), the mini narrative may be resolved within an episode (also known as an episodic narrative).

Narrative theories

When studying narrative in Media, we need to be able to identify what the story is and how it is being told. We also need to see how narrative is being used to encourage the audience to buy or choose the media product - or keep them engaged if they have already started to consume it.

There are three key theories we need to learn and apply:

Enigma and Action Codes - Roland Barthes

Barthes suggested that stories have certain codes that audiences understand and respond to.

ENIGMA codes: control how much we know and help hold our interest. It creates mystery during the narrative.

ACTION codes: events or actions in the story that are important in developing the narrative, e.g. a gun being cocked signifies that a violent scene will follow.

Todorov: equilibrium

Tzvetan Todorov proposed a theory of equilibrium:

Equilibrium: An existing state of harmony

Disequilibrium: Equilibrium is disrupted by an unfortunate event or evil character which leads to a chain of events involving conflict

New Equilibrium: The evil forces are defeated, the conflict is resolved and harmony exists once more

Character theory: Propp

Vladimir Propp came up with a list of stock characters in narratives by examining Russian fairytales. He called them the seven spheres of action:

The Villain: Creates a complication in the narrative

The Donor: Gives the hero something that will help in the resolution

The Helper: Helps the hero in restoring the resolution

The Princess: Has to be saved by the hero

The Dispatcher: Sends the hero on a task

The Hero: Central protagonist, saves the day and restores equilibrium

The False Hero: Rare character that appears to be good but is revealed to have been bad all along.

Levi-Strauss: binary opposition

We will return to this later in the course when we explore ideology but Levi-Strauss suggests that media texts use binary oppositions to create conflict and narrative for the audience to follow. His idea is that all culture can be understood in relation to these opposite forces such as heroes and villains.

Narrative: blog task

Complete the following questions using the Media Factsheet resource available on the Media Shared drive. 

You'll find them in our Media Factsheet archive: M:\Resources\A Level\Media Factsheets. You can also access them online here if you use your Greenford Google login.

Read Media Factsheet 14 - Telling Stories: The Media's Use of Narrative and answer the following questions:

1) Give an example from film or television that uses Todorov's narrative structure of equilibrium, disequilibrium and new equilibrium. 

2) Complete the activity on page 1 of the Factsheet: find a clip on YouTube of the opening of a new TV drama series (season 1, episode 1). Embed the clip in your blog and write an analysis of the narrative markers that help establish setting, character and plot.

3) Provide three different examples from film or television of characters that fit Propp's hero character role.

4) Give an example of a binary opposition.

5) What example is provided in the Factsheet for the way narratives can emphasise dominant ideologies and values?

6) Why do enigma and action codes (Barthes) offer gratifications for audiences?

7) Write a one-sentence summary of the four different types of TV narrative:

• Episodic narrative (the series)
• Overarching narrative (the serial)
• Mixed narrative
• Multi-strand overlapping narrative (soap narrative)

8) How does the Factsheet suggest adverts use narrative?  


A/A* extension task

Use our brilliant Media Magazine archive to read Narratology: Todorov, Propp and Freytag from MM70 (page 24). This applies some of our narrative theories (and one new one) to Star Wars, Avengers and more. Which of these theories do you find most useful when applying to media texts? Why? 


You will be given lesson time to work on this but will need to complete for homework - due date specified on Satchel One

Film & TV Language: Sound video feedback and learner response

It's always a great pleasure watching your parallel and contrapuntal sound videos. 

When they are done, you'll need to complete the following tasks on your blog:

Video feedback/learner response

Create a new blogpost called 'Sound video feedback and learner response'. Make sure your video is on YouTube and embedded on your blog and then complete the following tasks:

1) Type up your feedback from your teacher.

2) Type up your feedback from fellow students - you can summarise key points if several students give you similar feedback.

3) Now reflect on your work and write your own evaluation of your video. Write a 'What went well' (WWW) paragraph and a paragraph for 'Even Better If' (EBI) underneath the rest of your feedback.

4) Learner response: compare your own video against your evaluation of the top three videos in the class. Whose did you think was best and why? How could you have improved your own video?

5) Finally, what have you learned about the importance of sound to film and TV through this work?

Complete this for homework - due date on Satchel One.

Film & TV Language: Sound analysis tasks

As with every aspect of our Film & TV Language unit, you also have some written analysis to complete for Sound.

If you need the notes on Sound from the lesson, you can find them in your Film Language booklet or on the other blogpost for Sound.

Sound analysis: blog tasks

1) Find a film clip on YouTube that uses sound in an interesting way. Analyse the use of sound, making sure you use the key language we have learned about sound in film:

• Diegetic and non-diegetic sound
• Parallel and contrapuntal sound
• Sound bridges

Remember to discuss/analyse all the different types of sound present in the clip:

• Music
• Dialogue
• Voiceover
• Sound effects

You also need to highlight or put in bold any use of media language.

Complete for homework - due date on Satchel One..

MIGRAIN: Genre

Genre is a crucial concept in media and underpins our understanding of all media texts. 

If you missed the lesson on genre the key notes are here:

Genre: notes

Genres may be identified by the following:

Narrative structures
Plot
Typical situations, characters and relationships

Visual iconography
Mise-en-scene: props, costumes, locations etc.
Cinematography

Ideology and themes
Representations, values and ideologies

Daniel Chandler suggests definitions of genre tend to be based on the notion that they constitute particular conventions of content (such as themes or settings - iconography) and/or form (including structure and style) which are shared by the texts which are regarded as belonging to them.


Genre: institution and audience

Tolson (1996) suggests that genre “mediates between industry and audience”.

Abercrombie suggests that “television producers set out to exploit genre conventions... It... makes sound economic sense.” 

Abercromie adds: “Genres permit the creation and maintenance of a loyal audience which becomes used to seeing programmes within a genre.”

Genres of order and integration

Some theorists (including Schatz) have suggested there are only two genres:

Genres of order: western, gangster, action, sci-fi etc. Identified by hero (dominant; male), setting (contested, unstable), conflict (external; fighting), resolution (death). 

Genres of integration: comedies, musicals, rom-coms etc. 
Identified by heroes (couple or collective); setting (civilised space); conflict (internal; emotional); resolution (love).


Neale: “Repetition and difference”

Steve Neale declares that “genres are instances of repetition and difference” (Neale 1980). He adds:  “Difference is absolutely essential to the economy of genre” - mere repetition would not attract an audience.

Buckingham (1993) agrees, suggesting contemporary theory sees genre as dynamic: “Genre is not... simply "given" by the culture: rather, it is in a constant process of negotiation and change”.

Schatz develops this idea that genres are dynamic and suggests they go through a cycle:

Innovation: genre codes are established
Classical: conventions are repeated
Parody: codes become clichéd and are mocked
Deconstruction: the genre is experimented with to establish new or different conventions

Watch this evolution of the James Bond movie franchise to see how a genre can adapt, innovate and reinvent itself:

Genre: blog tasks

Work through the following tasks on your Exam blog. There is a lot of work here - factsheets to read and questions to answer before carrying out your own in-depth blog case study on a moving image text of your choice.

Task 1: Genre factsheets

Complete the following tasks using the Media Factsheets available on the Media Shared drive. You'll find them in our Media Factsheet archive: M:\Resources\A Level\Media Factsheets or can access them online using your Greenford Google login here.

Create a new blogpost in your Exam blog called 'Genre blog tasks' and complete the following:

Read Media Factsheet 03 - Genre: Categorising texts and answer the following questions:

1) What example is provided of why visual iconographies are so important?

2) What examples are provided of the importance of narrative in identifying genre?

3) What are the different ways films can be categorised according to Bordwell? 

4) List three ways genre is used by audiences.

5) List three ways genre is used by institutions or producers.

Read Media Factsheet 126 - Superheroes: A Genre Case Study and answer the following questions:

1) List five films the factsheet discusses with regards to the Superhero genre.

2) What examples are provided of how the Superhero genre has reflected the changing values, ideologies and world events of the last 70 years?

3) How can Schatz's theory of genre cycles be applied to the Superhero genre?


Task 2: Genre analysis case study

Carry out your own genre analysis using the model provided by media theorist Daniel Chandler. Choose a film or TV text and answer the following questions - brief answers/bullet point responses are fine:

General
1) Why did you choose the text you are analysing?
2) To what genre did you initially assign the text?
3) What is your experience of this genre?
4) What subject matter and basic themes is the text concerned with?
5) How typical of the genre is this text in terms of content?
6) What expectations do you have about texts in this genre?
7) Have you found any formal generic labels for this particular text (where - try imdb.com if unsure)?
8) Which conventions of the genre do you recognize in the text?
9) To what extent does this text stretch the conventions of its genre?
10) Where and why does the text depart from the conventions of the genre?
11) Which conventions seem more like those of a different genre (and which genre(s))?
12) What familiar motifs or images are used?

Mode of address
1) What sort of audience did you feel that the text was aimed at (and how typical was this of the genre)?
2) What assumptions seem to be made about your class, age, gender and ethnicity?
3) What interests does it assume you have?

Relationship to other texts
1) What intertextual references are there in the text you are analysing (and to what other texts)? Intertextuality is when a media product references another media text of some kind.
2) In terms of genre, which other texts does the text you are analysing resemble most closely?
3) What key features are shared by these texts?
4) What major differences do you notice between them?

This is a fair amount of work - but you will have plenty of time to complete it (including lesson time). Anything you don't finish this week in the lesson complete for homework. In total, we think this work will take around 2-3 hours so plan your homework time accordingly.

Due date: on Show my Homework

Film & TV Language: Sound notes and practical task

Our next aspect of film language is crucial: Sound.

A reminder of our notes on Sound:

Sound is incredibly important to our understanding of a film. The music, dialogue and sound effects (SFX) all contribute to the way we appreciate what we are watching on the screen.    

Diegetic and non-diegetic sound

Diegetic sound comes from the world of the film we are watching.  This could include dialogue by characters in the scene or music or other sound that comes from a source we would naturally expect that sound to come from, e.g. a radio or TV.

Non-diegetic sound is added during post production, e.g. voice over or music sound track.

Parallel and contrapuntal sound

Parallel sound is music we would normally expect to hear accompanying a scene, e.g. soft romantic music might be played over a love scene.

Contrapuntal sound is music that we don’t normally associate with the scene we are watching, e.g. classical music played over a bloody fight scene.

Sound bridge

Sometimes you will notice that sound from a scene continues even though the visual image has moved to the next scene. Alternatively, the sound of the following scene may begin before the image changes. This is a called a sound bridge and helps create a smooth transition from one scene to the next.

Practical assignment: parallel and contrapuntal sound video

Complete this video task in pairs - you only need to create ONE video between the two of you but it must be uploaded to YouTube and posted to BOTH of your blogs.

1) Choose a 60 second piece of music - it can be a film score or a song, it is up to you.

2) Using editing software (we recommend using Adobe Premiere Pro so you get more confident using it) produce a one-minute montage of images and videos. Half the images need to be parallel to the music and half need to be contrapuntal. Think carefully about how you can best select images and videos to have a significant impact on the audience. For this task, you do not need to use original images or videos.

3) Upload the finished video to YouTube and embed it in your own blog with a brief description of what you've created. Note: due to videos occasionally being blocked on copyright grounds, please also save the exported video file (e.g. MP4) into your student folder on the M: Media Shared drive.

4) Present your video to the class next week, explaining the thinking behind your work.

Deadline: see Satchel One

Here's an example from a previous year to give you an idea of what to produce:

MIGRAIN: Structuralism

Structuralism is one of the key theoretical perspectives in A Level Media and builds on our work on semiotics.

Structuralism and post-structuralism sound complicated but they don’t need to be - you will already be familiar with aspects of both without realising it.

Structuralism: a definition

Structuralism is a theoretical perspective that emphasises the existence of universal structures underlying the surface differences of media texts. 

For example, the way universal aspects of narrative and genre help us to understand cultural products.

You can find out more here from Tom Nicholas's WTF channel and his introduction to structuralism:

Key theorist: Claude Levi-Strauss

Levi-Strauss argues we are socialised by our culture - we understand the world based on the structures of society and media.

He suggests that media and culture is often based around binary oppositions - a key narrative theory we will return to.

Narrative and genre

Two of the key aspects of structuralism and the media are narrative and genre - the next two topics we will study. 

Another classic structuralist approach is auteur theory - the idea that media producers (e.g. film directors) communicate distinctive visions identifiable by audiences through themes or conventions. 

Post-structuralism: a definition

Post-structuralism questions structuralism's emphasis on fixed meanings and underlying structures, arguing that meaning is fluid, unstable, and shaped by power dynamics and context. 

Post-structuralism challenges the idea of fixed truths, suggesting meaning is polysemic and emphasising the audience’s role as a producer of meaning rather than a mere consumer. It feels relevant to the digital social media age we now find ourselves in.

Structuralism: blog tasks

Create a new blog task called 'Structuralism and post-structuralism' on your Media 1 Exam blog (exam teacher). Complete the following tasks:

Part 1: Media Factsheet reading

Use our brilliant Media Factsheet archive to find Factsheet #90 Applying Structuralism and Post-Structuralism. Read the Factsheet and answer the following questions:

1) What is the definition of structuralism provided by the Factsheet? 

2) What are binary oppositions and why are they important?

3) How do genre and auteur theory link to structuralism? 

4) Look at page 4 of the factsheet. What is post-structuralism?

5) What is your own opinion on this theory? Do you agree that we use established structures to understand the media (such as narrative and genre) or is the power now with audiences in a digital, post-structuralist media landscape? 

Part 2: The Mitchells vs The Machines analysis

Watch the trailer for The Mitchells vs The Machines: 

Write an analysis of the trailer from both a structuralist and post-structuralist perspective. 

The following may help you:

Structuralist: what established narratives, genres or conventions can be found in the trailer? 

Post-structuralist: how does the trailer reject traditional structures and instead offer something new (e.g. incorporating elements of YouTube meme culture, audiences as producers of meaning or subverting expectations of narrative or character).

Due date: on Show my Homework

Film & TV Language: Mise-en-scene video feedback and learner response

 Your mise-en-scene recreation videos were a brilliant introduction to the creative challenges demanded by A Level Media.

Video projects take time - as well as comprehensive planning, organisation and execution. The more projects you complete the better prepared you will be for the practical coursework when we come to it in the summer. As a first assignment, it's fantastic to see how many of you have created well planned and technically proficient videos that meet the brief you were given. 

Mise-en-scene recreation: Learner response

Create a new blogpost called 'Mise-en-scene video feedback and learner response'. Make sure your completed recreation video is uploaded to YouTube and embedded in the blogpost.

1) Type up your feedback from your teacher in full.

2) Type up a summary of the feedback you have had from the rest of the class - bullet points is fine.

3) Use all the feedback you've been given to write your own self-assessment of your video using WWW (What Went Well) and EBI (Even Better If...)

4) Now reflect on your own work in more detail. How did your planning (script, shot list) help clarify and develop your ideas?

5) Thinking technically, how could you improve your work for future videos? (E.g. filming, editing, audio levels etc.)

6) Finally, what have you learned regarding the importance of mise-en-scene in film and television? Write a paragraph to answer this.

Due date: on Satchel One