We also need to study a range of media theories that help us to understand the effect that media representations can have on people and society.
The key notes on representation:
- Representation is the process by which the media presents the ‘real world’ to an audience.
- Media texts are artificial, constructed versions of reality
- Even factual media – such as news – goes through processes of selection, organisation and editing that shapes its content
- How are particular people and groups represented in the media? How and why are stereotypes created?
- Why are certain social groups – in both a national and global context – under-represented or misrepresented?
Social and cultural contexts
Mediation
Representation in the media is a particularly good way to explore questions of social and cultural context. These are words that regularly appear in AQA exam questions so we need to be confident responding to them. Key definitions:
Social contexts: How do media products influence or affect people in society?
Cultural contexts: How does the media reflect the typical ideas, opinions and beliefs in British society or the culture they were created in?
Historical contexts: How has society (and representation in media products) changed over time?
Mediation
Media texts are a construction of reality, and play an important role in the way we view the world.
Reality is therefore subject to mediation which is the process that takes place when a media text’s meaning is created.
When mediation takes place, an institution, individual or even technology comes between the actual event and the audience.
Levi-Strauss: representation theory
Claude Levi-Strauss suggests that representations in the media are informed by ideology: the set of beliefs and values of the producer of the text.
Some things are included and others are left out to create a dominant or preferred representation. This links to Hall’s work on Reception theory.
Stereotypes
Media messages have to be communicated quickly which often means relying on stereotypes. Stereotypes work as a kind of shorthand where a word, image or sound will stand for a lot more.
A stereotype is a standardised, usually oversimplified mental picture or attitude towards a person, group, place or event.
Stereotypes act like codes that give audiences a quick, common understanding of a person or group of people—usually relating to their gender, class, ethnicity or race, sexual orientation, social role or occupation.
Representation: dominant or alternative?
A representation in the media will either reinforce or challenge the stereotype.
If it reinforces the stereotype, it is a dominant representation.
If it challenges the stereotype, it is an alternative representation.
Representation theories
Mulvey: the male gaze
Laura Mulvey suggests that the dominant view in the media is masculine and created for the benefit of men. Women are presented for men to look at, hence the ‘male gaze’. This links to the idea of ‘sex sells’ and women being represented as sex objects.
More recently, the idea of the ‘female gaze’ has been suggested. Rosalind Gill suggests the objectified male is an example of post-feminist media culture in modern Britain. Task: write down an example for each.
Linked to Mulvey...
Berger: ‘Ways of seeing’
An additional representation theory that influenced Mulvey:
John Berger (1972) stated that: “Men act and women appear”
“Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at.”
Richard Dyer: Stereotyping and power
Richard Dyer's theory suggests that the complexity and variety of a group is reduced to a few key characteristics. An exaggerated version of these characteristics is then applied to everyone in the group.
He states that those with power stereotype those with less power.
Therefore, we have stereotypes of non-white people, poor people and women... but not so many of white, middle class men.
Medhurst: shorthand that carries value judgements
Andy Medhurst suggests stereotyping is shorthand for identification. This means we use stereotypes to tell audiences a lot in a short space of time.
However, this can carry value judgements and therefore be very negative for the representation of minority groups. Medhurst gave the example of the representation of gay men:
Richard Dyer's theory suggests that the complexity and variety of a group is reduced to a few key characteristics. An exaggerated version of these characteristics is then applied to everyone in the group.
He states that those with power stereotype those with less power.
Therefore, we have stereotypes of non-white people, poor people and women... but not so many of white, middle class men.
Medhurst: shorthand that carries value judgements
Andy Medhurst suggests stereotyping is shorthand for identification. This means we use stereotypes to tell audiences a lot in a short space of time.
However, this can carry value judgements and therefore be very negative for the representation of minority groups. Medhurst gave the example of the representation of gay men:
"The image of the screaming queen does not just mean 'all gay men are like that', it means 'all gay men are like that and aren't they awful', which in turn means 'and they are awful because they are not like us'."
Perkins: stereotypes can be positive or partly true
Tessa Perkins suggests some stereotypes can be positive and are often true.
Specifically, she stated that stereotypes are...
- Not always negative (the French are good cooks)
- Not always about the less powerful (Politicians are corrupt)
- Can be about our own social groups (Students are lazy)
- Not always false (The Scottish wear kilts)
- Can change over time (A typical British holiday was in Blackpool; now it is Spain)
Representation: blog tasks
Create a new blogpost called 'Representation blog tasks'.
Read the Media Magazine feature 'Representation old and new'. This is in MM51 on page 6 - go to our Media Magazine archive to find the article. Complete the following tasks:
1) Why is representation an important concept in Media Studies?
2) How does the example of Kate Middleton show the way different meanings can be created in the media?
3) Summarise the section 'The how, who and why of media representation' in 50 words.
4) How does Stuart Hall's theory of preferred and oppositional readings fit with representation?
5) How has new technology changed the way representations are created in the media?
6) What example is provided of how national identity is represented in Britain - and how some audiences use social media to challenge this?
Watch the clip from Luther that we studied in class (Season 1, Episode 1 - minute 7.40-10.00 - you'll need your Greenford Google login to access the clip). Now answer these final two questions:
7) Write a paragraph analysing the dominant and alternative representations you can find in the clip from Luther.
Read the Media Magazine feature 'Representation old and new'. This is in MM51 on page 6 - go to our Media Magazine archive to find the article. Complete the following tasks:
1) Why is representation an important concept in Media Studies?
2) How does the example of Kate Middleton show the way different meanings can be created in the media?
3) Summarise the section 'The how, who and why of media representation' in 50 words.
4) How does Stuart Hall's theory of preferred and oppositional readings fit with representation?
5) How has new technology changed the way representations are created in the media?
6) What example is provided of how national identity is represented in Britain - and how some audiences use social media to challenge this?
Watch the clip from Luther that we studied in class (Season 1, Episode 1 - minute 7.40-10.00 - you'll need your Greenford Google login to access the clip). Now answer these final two questions:
7) Write a paragraph analysing the dominant and alternative representations you can find in the clip from Luther.
8) Write a paragraph applying a selection of our representation theories to the clip from Luther. Our summary of each theory may help you here:
Levi-Strauss: representation and ideology
Levi-Strauss: representation and ideology
Mulvey: the male gaze
Dyer: stereotyping and power
Medhurst: value judgements
Perkins: some stereotypes can be positive or true
Medhurst: value judgements
Perkins: some stereotypes can be positive or true
Complete for homework: due date on Google Classroom
