MIGRAIN: Narrative

Narrative is a vital concept for A Level Media Studies and underpins the success or failure of most media texts.

We look for narratives - stories - to make sense of media products. Everything from film and television to news and adverts rely on narrative to help audiences understand the message. 

There are narrative patterns and four key narrative theories we need to learn as part of our introduction to A Level Media. The notes as a reminder:

Narrative patterns

Linear Pattern: progresses forward towards a resolution - Beginning, Middle and End.

Multi-strand Narrative: popular in broadcast TV (e.g. soaps) and film. Involves more than one narrative running parallel involving different characters and locations.

Documentary narrative: this may revolve round a central theme (e.g. troublesome neighbours) or group of people.

Long-running TV series such as classics Game of Thrones or Breaking Bad have one major narrative arc and lots of mini-narratives. The overarching narrative runs over the series (or even multiple series), the mini narrative may be resolved within an episode (also known as an episodic narrative).

Narrative theories

When studying narrative in Media, we need to be able to identify what the story is and how it is being told. We also need to see how narrative is being used to encourage the audience to buy or choose the media product - or keep them engaged if they have already started to consume it.

There are three key theories we need to learn and apply:

Enigma and Action Codes - Roland Barthes

Barthes suggested that stories have certain codes that audiences understand and respond to.

ENIGMA codes: control how much we know and help hold our interest. It creates mystery during the narrative.

ACTION codes: events or actions in the story that are important in developing the narrative, e.g. a gun being cocked signifies that a violent scene will follow.

Todorov: equilibrium

Tzvetan Todorov proposed a theory of equilibrium:

Equilibrium: An existing state of harmony

Disequilibrium: Equilibrium is disrupted by an unfortunate event or evil character which leads to a chain of events involving conflict

New Equilibrium: The evil forces are defeated, the conflict is resolved and harmony exists once more

Character theory: Propp

Vladimir Propp came up with a list of stock characters in narratives by examining Russian fairytales. He called them the seven spheres of action:

The Villain: Creates a complication in the narrative

The Donor: Gives the hero something that will help in the resolution

The Helper: Helps the hero in restoring the resolution

The Princess: Has to be saved by the hero

The Dispatcher: Sends the hero on a task

The Hero: Central protagonist, saves the day and restores equilibrium

The False Hero: Rare character that appears to be good but is revealed to have been bad all along.

Levi-Strauss: binary opposition

We will return to this later in the course when we explore ideology but Levi-Strauss suggests that media texts use binary oppositions to create conflict and narrative for the audience to follow. His idea is that all culture can be understood in relation to these opposite forces such as heroes and villains.

Narrative: blog task

Complete the following questions using the Media Factsheet resource available on the Media Shared drive. 

You'll find them in our Media Factsheet archive: M:\Resources\A Level\Media Factsheets. You can also access them online here if you use your Greenford Google login.

Read Media Factsheet 14 - Telling Stories: The Media's Use of Narrative and answer the following questions:

1) Give an example from film or television that uses Todorov's narrative structure of equilibrium, disequilibrium and new equilibrium. 

2) Complete the activity on page 1 of the Factsheet: find a clip on YouTube of the opening of a new TV drama series (season 1, episode 1). Embed the clip in your blog and write an analysis of the narrative markers that help establish setting, character and plot.

3) Provide three different examples from film or television of characters that fit Propp's hero character role.

4) Give an example of a binary opposition.

5) What example is provided in the Factsheet for the way narratives can emphasise dominant ideologies and values?

6) Why do enigma and action codes (Barthes) offer gratifications for audiences?

7) Write a one-sentence summary of the four different types of TV narrative:

• Episodic narrative (the series)
• Overarching narrative (the serial)
• Mixed narrative
• Multi-strand overlapping narrative (soap narrative)

8) How does the Factsheet suggest adverts use narrative?  


A/A* extension task

Use our brilliant Media Magazine archive to read Narratology: Todorov, Propp and Freytag from MM70 (page 24). This applies some of our narrative theories (and one new one) to Star Wars, Avengers and more. Which of these theories do you find most useful when applying to media texts? Why? 


You will be given lesson time to work on this but will need to complete for homework - due date specified on Satchel One

Film & TV Language: Lighting

One aspect of mise-en-scène that is particularly important in film and TV is Lighting.

Lighting notes

Traditional studio lighting usually comes from three sources:

• The key light is the brightest and most influential.
• The back light helps to counteract the effects of the key light making the subject appear more ‘rounded’.
• The filler light helps to soften any shadows created by the other lights.  There may be more then one filler light.

The key light can be directed from a variety of angles to create different effects.

Underlighting comes from below the subject leading to a distorted effect.  This is often used in horror or science-fiction films.

Top lighting comes from above and can be used to accentuate the features of a character.  It is often used to make film stars look more glamorous.

Back lighting is when the source comes from behind the object to create a silhouette.    

High-Key and Low-Key Lighting

Low-key lighting is created by using only the key and back lights.  This effect produces strong contrasts of light and dark and creates dramatic shadows.  The effect is known as chiaroscuro, which comes from the Italian words for light (chiaro) and dark (oscuro).

High-key lighting means that more filler lights are used.  The effect appears more realistic and might depict either a sunny day or a more dimly lit scene.  The major difference is that, although shadows are still created, the contrast between light and dark is much less pronounced.  

The video we watched the opening to for mise-en-scene has an excellent focus on lighting:

Lighting blog tasks

You'll need to use the Film Language Powerpoint to work through the Lighting tasks. 

Create a blogpost called 'Lighting blog tasks' and complete the following:

1) Still image analysis

Look at the still images on slides 33-37 of the Film Language Powerpoint linked above. Copy the images into your blog and answer the following questions for each image:

1. Identify examples of high and low-key lighting.
2. Say which depict top, back or under lighting.
3. What effects are created by the lighting in each image?     

Note: if the images don't display correctly in your blog then simply use the number of each image and answer the three questions for each.

2) Film noir research 

Research film noir - focusing on the genre’s distinctive lighting style. Make notes on the genre and particularly the use of lighting - bullet points are fine. 

3) Film noir YouTube clip analysis 

Finally, find a YouTube clip that fits the film noir genre and embed it under your research (the clip can be classic noir from the 1950s or something more recent - neo-noir). How does the clip's lighting fit the film noir genre? 

Anything you don't complete in the lesson will be homework, due date on Satchel One.

MIGRAIN: Genre

Genre is a crucial concept in media and underpins our understanding of all media texts. 

If you missed the lesson on genre the key notes are here:

Genre: notes

Genres may be identified by the following:

Narrative structures
Plot
Typical situations, characters and relationships

Visual iconography
Mise-en-scene: props, costumes, locations etc.
Cinematography

Ideology and themes
Representations, values and ideologies

Daniel Chandler suggests definitions of genre tend to be based on the notion that they constitute particular conventions of content (such as themes or settings - iconography) and/or form (including structure and style) which are shared by the texts which are regarded as belonging to them.


Genre: institution and audience

Tolson (1996) suggests that genre “mediates between industry and audience”.

Abercrombie suggests that “television producers set out to exploit genre conventions... It... makes sound economic sense.” 

Abercromie adds: “Genres permit the creation and maintenance of a loyal audience which becomes used to seeing programmes within a genre.”

Genres of order and integration

Some theorists (including Schatz) have suggested there are only two genres:

Genres of order: western, gangster, action, sci-fi etc. Identified by hero (dominant; male), setting (contested, unstable), conflict (external; fighting), resolution (death). 

Genres of integration: comedies, musicals, rom-coms etc. 
Identified by heroes (couple or collective); setting (civilised space); conflict (internal; emotional); resolution (love).


Neale: “Repetition and difference”

Steve Neale declares that “genres are instances of repetition and difference” (Neale 1980). He adds:  “Difference is absolutely essential to the economy of genre” - mere repetition would not attract an audience.

Buckingham (1993) agrees, suggesting contemporary theory sees genre as dynamic: “Genre is not... simply "given" by the culture: rather, it is in a constant process of negotiation and change”.

Schatz develops this idea that genres are dynamic and suggests they go through a cycle:

Innovation: genre codes are established
Classical: conventions are repeated
Parody: codes become clichéd and are mocked
Deconstruction: the genre is experimented with to establish new or different conventions

Watch this evolution of the James Bond movie franchise to see how a genre can adapt, innovate and reinvent itself:

Genre: blog tasks

Work through the following tasks on your Exam blog. There is a lot of work here - factsheets to read and questions to answer before carrying out your own in-depth blog case study on a moving image text of your choice.

Task 1: Genre factsheets

Complete the following tasks using the Media Factsheets available on the Media Shared drive. You'll find them in our Media Factsheet archive: M:\Resources\A Level\Media Factsheets or can access them online using your Greenford Google login here.

Create a new blogpost in your Exam blog called 'Genre blog tasks' and complete the following:

Read Media Factsheet 03 - Genre: Categorising texts and answer the following questions:

1) What example is provided of why visual iconographies are so important?

2) What examples are provided of the importance of narrative in identifying genre?

3) What are the different ways films can be categorised according to Bordwell? 

4) List three ways genre is used by audiences.

5) List three ways genre is used by institutions or producers.

Read Media Factsheet 126 - Superheroes: A Genre Case Study and answer the following questions:

1) List five films the factsheet discusses with regards to the Superhero genre.

2) What examples are provided of how the Superhero genre has reflected the changing values, ideologies and world events of the last 70 years?

3) How can Schatz's theory of genre cycles be applied to the Superhero genre?


Task 2: Genre analysis case study

Carry out your own genre analysis using the model provided by media theorist Daniel Chandler. Choose a film or TV text and answer the following questions - brief answers/bullet point responses are fine:

General
1) Why did you choose the text you are analysing?
2) To what genre did you initially assign the text?
3) What is your experience of this genre?
4) What subject matter and basic themes is the text concerned with?
5) How typical of the genre is this text in terms of content?
6) What expectations do you have about texts in this genre?
7) Have you found any formal generic labels for this particular text (where - try imdb.com if unsure)?
8) Which conventions of the genre do you recognize in the text?
9) To what extent does this text stretch the conventions of its genre?
10) Where and why does the text depart from the conventions of the genre?
11) Which conventions seem more like those of a different genre (and which genre(s))?
12) What familiar motifs or images are used?

Mode of address
1) What sort of audience did you feel that the text was aimed at (and how typical was this of the genre)?
2) What assumptions seem to be made about your class, age, gender and ethnicity?
3) What interests does it assume you have?

Relationship to other texts
1) What intertextual references are there in the text you are analysing (and to what other texts)? Intertextuality is when a media product references another media text of some kind.
2) In terms of genre, which other texts does the text you are analysing resemble most closely?
3) What key features are shared by these texts?
4) What major differences do you notice between them?

This is a fair amount of work - but you will have plenty of time to complete it (including lesson time). Anything you don't finish this week in the lesson complete for homework. In total, we think this work will take around 2-3 hours so plan your homework time accordingly.

Due date: on Show my Homework

Film & TV Language: Mise-en-scene video feedback and learner response

Your mise-en-scene recreation videos were a brilliant introduction to the creative challenges demanded by A Level Media.

Video projects take time - as well as comprehensive planning, organisation and execution. The more projects you complete the better prepared you will be for the practical coursework when we come to it in the summer. As a first assignment, it's fantastic to see how many of you have created well planned and technically proficient videos that meet the brief you were given. 

Mise-en-scene recreation: Learner response

Create a new blogpost called 'Mise-en-scene video feedback and learner response'. Make sure your completed recreation video is uploaded to YouTube and embedded in the blogpost.

1) Type up your feedback from your teacher in full.

2) Type up a summary of the feedback you have had from the rest of the class - bullet points is fine.

3) Use all the feedback you've been given to write your own self-assessment of your video using WWW (What Went Well) and EBI (Even Better If...)

4) Now reflect on your own work in more detail. How did your planning (script, shot list) help clarify and develop your ideas?

5) Thinking technically, how could you improve your work for future videos? (E.g. filming, editing, audio levels etc.)

6) Finally, what have you learned regarding the importance of mise-en-scene in film and television? Write a paragraph to answer this.

Due date: on Satchel One

MIGRAIN: Structuralism

Structuralism is one of the key theoretical perspectives in A Level Media and builds on our work on semiotics.

Structuralism and post-structuralism sound complicated but they don’t need to be - you will already be familiar with aspects of both without realising it.

Structuralism: a definition

Structuralism is a theoretical perspective that emphasises the existence of universal structures underlying the surface differences of media texts. 

For example, the way universal aspects of narrative and genre help us to understand cultural products.

You can find out more here from Tom Nicholas's WTF channel and his introduction to structuralism:

Key theorist: Claude Levi-Strauss

Levi-Strauss argues we are socialised by our culture - we understand the world based on the structures of society and media.

He suggests that media and culture is often based around binary oppositions - a key narrative theory we will return to.

Narrative and genre

Two of the key aspects of structuralism and the media are narrative and genre - the next two topics we will study. 

Another classic structuralist approach is auteur theory - the idea that media producers (e.g. film directors) communicate distinctive visions identifiable by audiences through themes or conventions. 

Post-structuralism: a definition

Post-structuralism questions structuralism's emphasis on fixed meanings and underlying structures, arguing that meaning is fluid, unstable, and shaped by power dynamics and context. 

Post-structuralism challenges the idea of fixed truths, suggesting meaning is polysemic and emphasising the audience’s role as a producer of meaning rather than a mere consumer. It feels relevant to the digital social media age we now find ourselves in.

Structuralism: blog tasks

Create a new blog task called 'Structuralism and post-structuralism' on your Media 1 Exam blog (exam teacher). Complete the following tasks:

Part 1: Media Factsheet reading

Use our brilliant Media Factsheet archive to find Factsheet #90 Applying Structuralism and Post-Structuralism. Read the Factsheet and answer the following questions:

1) What is the definition of structuralism provided by the Factsheet? 

2) What are binary oppositions and why are they important?

3) How do genre and auteur theory link to structuralism? 

4) Look at page 4 of the factsheet. What is post-structuralism?

5) What is your own opinion on this theory? Do you agree that we use established structures to understand the media (such as narrative and genre) or is the power now with audiences in a digital, post-structuralist media landscape? 

Part 2: The Mitchells vs The Machines analysis

Watch the trailer for The Mitchells vs The Machines: 

Write an analysis of the trailer from both a structuralist and post-structuralist perspective. 

The following may help you:

Structuralist: what established narratives, genres or conventions can be found in the trailer? 

Post-structuralist: how does the trailer reject traditional structures and instead offer something new (e.g. incorporating elements of YouTube meme culture, audiences as producers of meaning or subverting expectations of narrative or character).

Due date: on Show my Homework

MIGRAIN: Reception theory

Reception theory is extremely useful when decoding media texts - and allows us to explore how different audiences may react to a media product.

It's also one of AQA's key audience theories for the new specification which means there may well be an exam question asking you to apply the theory to a particular media text. Make sure you have confidently learned these notes then complete the blog tasks below.

Reception theory: notes

Studying media language means looking at the way in which the sign or text is interpreted and how the meaning comes across to the audience. 

All media is thought to be polysemic in that it can be interpreted in different ways – it is not simply passively accepted by the audience. Stuart Hall introduced the idea of three different readings.

Stuart Hall: reception theory

Hall suggested there are three types of reading:

Dominant, Preferred or Hegemonic Reading: what the producer/creator intends – the ‘natural’ reading

Negotiated Reading: a middle ground between the producer’s intentions and the audience’s individual views

Oppositional or ‘Counter-Hegemonic’ Reading: an alternative reading that is actively against the producer’s intentions.

Here's a video from the excellent Media Insider on Reception theory:

Reception theory: example exam question

Sample AQA question for Paper 2:

According to reception theory, ‘the media attempts to transmit specific messages to audiences, but audiences are free to interpret these messages in a variety of ways – or even reject them’.

How valid are reception theory’s claims about audience responses? [25 marks]

Reception theory: blog tasks

Create a new blog post called ‘Reception theory’. Work through the following tasks:

Part 1) Applying Reception theory to adverts

Look back at the adverts you have been analysing in last week's lessons on Reading an Image and media codes (RBK 50 Cent and one of your choice). 

1) What are the preferred, negotiated and oppositional readings for the RBK 50 Cent advert?

2) What are the preferred, negotiated and oppositional readings for the advert of your own choice that you analysed for last week's work?

Remember to highlight or bold any media terminology you are using.

Part 2) Reception theory factsheet #218

Use our extremely useful A Level Media Factsheet archive to find Factsheet #218 Spotlight on Stuart Hall: Encoding, Decoding and Reception Theory. Read the factsheet and complete the following tasks and questions:

1) Complete Activity 1 on page 2 of the factsheet. Choose a media text you have enjoyed and apply the sender-message-channel-receiver model to the text. There is an example of how to do this in the factsheet (the freediving YouTube video).

2) What are the definitions of 'encoding' and 'decoding'?

3) Why did Stuart Hall criticise the sender-message-channel-receiver model?

4) What was Hall's circuit of communication model?

5) What does the factsheet say about Hall's Reception theory?

6) Look at the final page. How does it suggest Reception theory could be criticised?

Complete for homework - due date on Show my Homework.

A Level Media reading list and wider opportunities

It's brilliant to see several of you already asking about reading lists or additional work you can be doing to get ahead in Media.

This kind of attitude is exactly what you need if you want to aim for A/A* grades in your A Levels and below you will find all the extras you need to aim for that A* in Media. 

Media Theory at A Level by Mark Dixon

I'd be tempted to make this my top recommendation for A Level Media. It covers all the theories in the A Level Media specification and if you visit Mark Dixon's Essential Media Theory website you can sign up to view sample exam answers and more for free. Highly recommended! Note that if you are eligible for the Post-16 bursary then you will have some resources provided for you (including this book).

A Level Media Textbooks

There are textbooks available for the AQA A Level Media Studies course. These are written by the people writing the AQA exams so they can be helpful to understand what the exam board are thinking about a topic or product.

Important note: if you're eligible for the Post-16 bursary (or even think you might be eligible) then the school may be able to buy some of these books for you! Speak to your tutor or Mr Pall to find out more.

The textbook details:

AQA Media Studies for A Level: Student Book - Revised Edition

• Author(s): Stephanie Hendry, Elspeth Stevenson
• Paperback ISBN: 9781398388017 
• Paperback cost: £42
• Digital edition ISBN: 9781398387911
• Digital cost: £12
• PAGES: 344 

AQA Media Studies for A Level : Close Study Products

• Author(s): Stephanie Hendry, Elspeth Stevenson
• Paperback ISBN: 9781398388024 
• Paperback cost: £13
• Digital edition ISBN: 9781398387942
• Digital cost: £3.50
• PAGES: 96

Reading around the subject

I've been incredibly impressed that so many Year 12 students want to read beyond textbooks and have requested some university-level reading to help boost understanding (and personal statements further down the line!) Here's our top tips for reading around the subject in Media:

Media Magazine

The best reading for A Level Media is free to you - by reading copies of Media Magazine (you can find these in our Media Magazine archive.) This magazine is designed specifically for A Level Media students and contains articles about the terminology, concepts and media products we are studying - plus lots more!

If you're looking for books by media academics, it really depends what topic you are interested in. For example...

Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations by Clay Shirky is a great read if you're interested in the impact the internet has had on business, media and the world. Shirky is a great writer and you'll find this easy to read.

Gender Trouble by Judith Butler is the classic text for feminism and gender discussions - it's still a key media theory today and can also help with Sociology and English Literature. Beware though - it's a challenging read!

There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack: The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation by Paul Gilroy can also be a tough read in places due to its complexity (very much university-level academic writing) but is highly recommended if you're interested in the representation of race and ethnicity and the experience of British culture for black Britons.

Creative Mentor Network

The Creative Mentor Network is an incredible opportunity for post-16 students to make connections in the creative and media industries by shadowing a professional for several weeks. We’ve had a number of students complete the project and develop a fantastic range of contacts and experiences that will help them to get a job in the creative industries in future.

You can find more details on the CMN website or watch the video below (featuring our very own Hussein from a few years ago!)

BFI Film Academy

The BFI Film Academy is a national talent development project for young aspiring filmmakers organised by the BFI. It is aimed at 16-19 year olds and this year's focus is on Animation & Video Effects. It's extremely competitive and difficult to win a place but if you do there are funds available to pay your expenses and it's a quite incredible opportunity to meet people from the industry and learn professional-level skills. You can find out more about this project and other opportunities at the BFI Film Academy website here.